Management of primary teacher training programs using the CDIO approach: Theoretical frameworks and practical implementations

TS. Bùi Văn Hùng, TS. Nguyễn Việt Phương

Abstract The increasing emphasis on high-quality education necessitates the development of effective teacher training programs, particularly at the primary level. This study explores the application of the CDIO (Conceive-Design-Implement-Operate) approach in managing primary teacher training programs. Originally devised for engineering education, the CDIO framework has demonstrated potential in fostering practical skills and professional readiness among future educators. This research aims to bridge the gap between theoretical pedagogical training and practical classroom application by investigating the feasibility and effectiveness of the CDIO approach within the primary teacher training context. The study adopts a comprehensive literature review methodology, analyzing both global and Vietnamese perspectives on CDIO-based training program management. Key findings suggest that while the CDIO model aligns with modern educational reforms prioritizing competency-based learning, its adaptation to teacher training requires thoughtful contextualization to address challenges inherent in primary education. Furthermore, the study identifies several barriers related to contextual relevance, as the CDIO model's original focus on technical education may not entirely correspond to the needs of primary teacher training. The study's primary contribution lies in proposing a structured framework for managing primary teacher training programs using the CDIO model. This framework emphasizes the integration of theoretical knowledge with hands-on experiences, promoting active learning, problem-solving, and professional competency. However, the study is limited by its theoretical nature, as it lacks empirical validation through field implementation and comparative analysis with other management approaches. Recommendations for future research include conducting longitudinal studies in diverse educational settings to assess the model's practical impact and incorporating stakeholder feedback to ensure contextual adaptability.

Keywords: competency, curriculum, implementation, innovation, pedagogy 

1. Introduction 

The increasing demand for high-quality education worldwide has placed significant emphasis on the development of effective teacher training programs. Primary school teachers, as fundamental pillars of early childhood education, play a crucial role in shaping the cognitive and socio-emotional development of young learners (Zamalloa et al., 2025). Consequently, teacher training programs are important (Asim, 2024), and the management of teacher training programs has become a pivotal area of academic and professional discourse. One promising framework that has gained attention in the field of educational management is the CDIO approach. Originally developed for engineering education, the CDIO (Conceive-Design-Implement-Operate) framework focuses on integrating theoretical knowledge with practical application. Its principles are rooted in active learning, hands-on practice, and real-world problem-solving. Although primarily applied in technical and engineering education, the CDIO approach has shown potential in the context of teacher training by fostering practical skills and professional readiness (Nguyen et al., 2020).

This paper investigates the application of the CDIO approach in managing primary school teacher training programs. The main rationale for employing the CDIO framework is to address the prevalent gap between theoretical pedagogical training and practical classroom application. Traditional teacher education often emphasizes theoretical foundations without adequately equipping trainees with hands-on skills to navigate real classroom challenges. As primary school environments demand adaptable, practical, and innovative teaching methods, there is a clear need for a training model that bridges theory and practice (Tran & Phan, 2022). The application of the CDIO approach in teacher training not only aligns with modern educational reforms that prioritize competency-based learning but also offers a structured way to enhance teachers' practical skills. By employing the CDIO framework, teacher training programs can better prepare future educators for the dynamic nature of primary school teaching. This approach encourages pre-service teachers to engage in problem-based learning, collaborative projects, and reflective practices, thereby fostering a holistic understanding of both the content and pedagogical methods (Edström et al., 2020). Furthermore, the integration of the CDIO approach into primary school teacher training aligns with global educational trends that focus on sustainable teaching practices and professional competence. Countries worldwide are increasingly recognizing the need to equip teachers with the skills necessary to foster innovation and critical thinking among young learners. The CDIO model's emphasis on design thinking and operational implementation provides a valuable framework for meeting these demands (Nguyen et al., 2020).

Despite the potential benefits, the implementation of the CDIO approach in teacher training also presents challenges. Adapting a model originally designed for engineering education to the pedagogical context requires thoughtful modification to ensure relevance and efficacy. This paper aims to fill that gap by systematically reviewing the literature and examining the feasibility and impact of using the CDIO approach within this context (Tran and Phan, 2022).

2. Methodology 

This study adopts a narrative literature review methodology to investigate the application of the CDIO approach in managing primary teacher training programs. The main objectives of this review are to: 

(1) provide a comprehensive overview of existing research on CDIO-based training programs; (2) identify gaps in the literature, especially within the field of teacher education; (3) compare different approaches to training program design and management based on CDIO principles.

To achieve these objectives, a structured search was conducted across several major academic databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC). These databases were selected due to their relevance and comprehensive coverage of interdisciplinary research in education and training program management. The literature search focused on publications from 2000 to 2024, encompassing both foundational and recent studies on the CDIO model and its implementation in various educational contexts. Priority was given to peer-reviewed journal articles to ensure the academic rigor and reliability of the reviewed sources. In addition, selected conference proceedings, books, and doctoral theses were included where they offered significant insights into the Vietnamese or broader Southeast Asian educational landscape.

The quality of the included sources was evaluated based on the following criteria: 

(1) publication in indexed and peer-reviewed journals; (2) methodological clarity; (3) direct relevance to CDIO-based education or teacher training; (4) theoretical or empirical contribution to the field.

This process ensured that the review integrates both global perspectives and local adaptations relevant to the research topic.

2. Research on Training Programs 

2.1. Concept of training program 

The term training program (or educational program) first appeared in 1820. However, it was not until the mid-20th century that this term gained professional usage in the United States and other countries with advanced education systems. The term "training program" or "curriculum" is derived from the Latin word currere, meaning "to run" or "to operate". Traditionally, it has been understood as a "course of study" or a curriculum that forms a course (Nguyen, 2015). From the 1950s onwards, the definition of a training program expanded, with increasing attention given to its effectiveness. Smith et al. (1957) define a training program as a sequence of experiences provided by a school to shape learners' collective ways of thinking and acting. Good (1973) describes a training program as a comprehensive master plan outlining the content or specific teaching materials that schools should deliver to learners. Taba (1971) considers a training program as a learning plan. Foshay (1969) states that a training program encompasses all experiences learners should acquire under the school's guidance. Tanner and Tanner (2006) define training programs as guided and planned learning experiences with predetermined outcomes. These programs systematically establish knowledge and experience, fostering continuous social and personal competence in learners (Tanner & Tanner, 2006). Kelly (2009) views training programs as systematic presentations and descriptions of teaching and learning expectations over a specific period. This system outlines the essential elements for preparing, implementing, and evaluating teaching and learning to optimize outcomes (Kelly, 2009). Wentling and Lai (1993) define a training program as a master plan for educational activities conducted over a specific period (lesson, subject, class, grade level). This plan specifies educational content, expected learning outcomes, implementation processes, methods, and assessment procedures, organized in a structured schedule (Wentling & Lai, 1993).

In Vietnam, the concept of a training program has been studied by scholars such as Le and Tran (2010), Nguyen (2015), Nguyen (2005), and Tran (2010). According to Nguyen (2015), a training program is a comprehensive and systematic plan encompassing all educational activities at the school. It includes educational purposes, objectives, output standards, content (in breadth and depth according to output standards), teaching methods, organizational forms, tools, and evaluation methods aligned with the program's output standards (Nguyen, 2015).

2.2. Structure of the training program 

According to Kelly (2009), regardless of how a training program is defined, it must include four fundamental elements:

• One key aspect is according to Kelly.
• Another important component is, regardless of how a training program is defined, it must include four fundamental elements.
• In addition, attention should be given to the intention of the program builder.
• It is also necessary to address the necessary process to implement these intentions.
• Finally, it is essential to consider the practical experiences that students gain through the lecturer's implementation of the program's intentions.
• Another point is the "hidden" learning, which emerges as a by-product of the program (Kelly, 2009).

Other scholars, such as Henson (2015), Egan (2003), McNeil (1996) share Kelly's view on the essential elements of a training program. However, they further specify the fourth element as the tangible results that the program yields for students and universities.

2.3. Building and developing training programs 

Building and developing training programs have garnered significant attention from both domestic and international scholars. Print (1993) suggests that various approaches can be employed in developing training programs, each with distinct requirements. He proposes the following key approaches: 

• Content-Based Approach: This approach involves determining the knowledge learners need to acquire upon completing a subject or course before designing the program. Historically, this method was effective when higher education primarily focused on transferring knowledge. However, with the advent of the Industrial Revolution 4.0 and the phenomenon of information explosion, this approach has become less practical. In the modern context, the rapid and exponential increase in human knowledge makes it impossible for students to absorb vast amounts of information within limited university timeframes. Moreover, lecturers cannot effectively teach such an extensive range of content.
• Target-Based Approach: This approach prioritizes training objectives when developing a program. It begins by identifying the desired outcomes, including the specific knowledge and skills students should acquire. The process involves defining training methods, learning resources, and evaluation techniques to measure learning outcomes against the pre-established objectives. While content and skills are still important, they are viewed primarily as means to achieve the specified training objectives. Program designers carefully select relevant content, skills, training methods, and appropriate assessment techniques based on these goals.
• Management Approach: This approach treats the university as a social system where various groups, including students, lecturers, and managers, interact according to standardized behaviors. Program designers use terms such as program, schedule, space, resources, equipment, and personnel to organize and manage training processes. This method emphasizes monitoring and managing the training program, particularly focusing on organizing and implementing the educational activities effectively.

Apart from the previously mentioned methods, several scholars, including Brady (1995), Wiles and Bondi (2019), Gordon et al. (2019), have introduced other approaches to developing training programs: 

• Systemic Approach: This approach views the components of a training program (goals and output standards, content, teaching methods and organization, as well as evaluation methods) as an interconnected system. It is influenced by systems theory, systems analysis, and systems engineering. Experts adopting this approach take a broader, macro perspective, addressing training program issues within the entire university system rather than focusing solely on a single program.
• Developmental Approach: This approach emphasizes enhancing students' understanding and absorption abilities rather than merely imparting predetermined knowledge. The training program provides only essential knowledge, allowing each student to develop their own learning pathway based on personal needs, interests, experiences, and accumulated knowledge. This approach encourages students to create customized training programs that align with their individual goals.
• Competency Approach: This approach focuses on identifying the specific competencies that students need to acquire after each learning stage (such as a subject, school year, or course). These competencies serve as the output standards of the training program. Currently, the competency approach is considered the most suitable for developing training programs. It is essential that this approach is integrated into all components of the program.

According to Warwick (1987), the type of training program should align with the specific profession being trained. In Vietnam, scholars such as Trinh (2010), Pham (1998), Nguyen (2009), Bui (2006) have also examined these approaches in the context of training program development.

3. Research on CDIO-Based Training Programs 

3.1. CDIO-based training programs 

The CDIO approach in training program development is based on defining output standards, designing training programs, and creating implementation plans. CDIO stands for Conceive - Design - Implement - Operate, signifying the stages of forming ideas, designing, implementing, and operating. This approach was developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the early 1990s (Do, 2015). Today, more than 200 leading universities worldwide have adopted the CDIO approach to develop their training programs. Some notable examples include:

• United States: Stanford University, Arizona State University, California State University 
• Australia: Curtin University, Queensland University of Technology, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT), Sydney University, Duke University 
• Singapore: Nanyang Polytechnic University 
• China: Tsinghua University, Beijing Jiaotong University 

Numerous research studies have explored the application of CDIO-based training programs globally. Edström (2020) emphasized the critical role of CDIO in general engineering education and specifically in training program research. The author noted that developing a CDIO-based training program benefits both students and universities. These benefits include providing students with comprehensive foundational knowledge and practical skills, offering numerous opportunities for professional practice, and meeting society's human resource demands (Edström, 2020). Additionally, Edström et al. (2020) examined the application of CDIO in engineering education, highlighting essential requirements for developing a CDIO-based training program. Schedin and Hassan (2016) presented the integrated learning model within the CDIO approach, emphasizing the training program as a core CDIO standard. This standard encompasses training objectives, CDR (Conceive - Design - Realize), the program framework, and detailed course programs (Schedin & Hassan, 2016).

Crawley et al. (2011) systematically addressed the fundamental aspects of CDIO-based training programs, including: Objectives and CDR, Reforming training programs, Design and implementation experiences and the CDIO workspace, Innovating teaching and learning methods, Evaluating student outcomes and accrediting training programs, Pedagogical foundations, Meeting societal needs. According to these authors, the CDIO training program is a highly integrated model. Building such a program requires a comprehensive understanding of integration in terms of models, content, overall planning, and the structure of subjects and courses. Furthermore, the authors identified essential conditions for developing a CDIO training program: Transforming organizational culture within universities, Enhancing the teaching staff's capabilities, Promoting open ideas and resource sharing, Fostering cooperation for development, Aligning with national standards and other innovative initiatives, Motivating students to be "ready for technical work" (Crawley et al., 2011).

3.2. CDIO-based training programs in Vietnam 

The CDIO approach was introduced in Vietnam in 2010, initially applied to engineering majors at polytechnic universities and universities of natural sciences under Ho Chi Minh City National University. Since then, many universities across the country have adopted CDIO-based training programs, extending beyond engineering to other fields such as law and economics. Alongside practical implementation, studies on CDIO-based training programs have increasingly appeared in scientific journals and conferences.

Doan (2012) proposed the general goal for engineering training programs based on the CDIO approach, aiming to equip students with:

• One key aspect is Doan.
• Another important component is proposed the general goal for engineering training programs based on the CDIO approach, aiming to equip students with.
• In addition, attention should be given to profound knowledge of technical foundations.
• It is also necessary to address leadership skills for creating and operating new products, processes, and systems.
• Finally, it is essential to consider awareness of the strategic impact of research and technology development on society.

They also provided practical guidelines for universities to continuously enhance their CDIO-based training programs, aligning with global trends in higher education that emphasize student-centered learning and consider CDR (Conceive-Design-Realize) as a fundamental criterion for ensuring training quality (Doan, 2012).

However, Sai (2013) argued that CDR represents the minimum quality that graduates should achieve, including qualities, knowledge, skills/techniques, personal attributes, and competencies, or broadly speaking, "hard skills" and "soft skills". According to Hong, the purpose of a CDIO-based training program is to comprehensively develop students' knowledge, skills, attitudes, and practical abilities (CDIO competencies), along with a strong sense of social responsibility. Building such a program requires a meticulous process, from establishing CDR, designing the program, to transferring the program framework into practice (Sai, 2013).

Vo (2011) and Pham (2015, 2019) considered the development of CDIO-based training programs as a critical solution to enhance university training quality. They emphasize that only through building and implementing a CDIO-based program can graduates meet the CDR and fulfill stakeholder demands, particularly from employers. The proposed process for developing a CDIO-based training program includes:

• One key aspect is Vo.
• Another important component is and Pham (2015, 2019) considered the development of CDIO-based training programs as a critical solution to enhance university training quality.
• They emphasize that only through building and implementing a CDIO-based program can graduates meet the CDR and fulfill stakeholder demands, particularly from employers. The proposed process for developing a CDIO-based training program includes.
• In addition, attention should be given to defining training objectives.
• It is also necessary to address establishing CDR.
• Finally, it is essential to consider creating a CDIO-based training program.
• Another point is developing a detailed course outline, including teaching content, methods, and student assessment.
• And conducting evaluations according to CDIO standards.

Pham (2016), based on practical experience at the University of Electricity, provided recommendations for developing CDIO-based training programs. Le (2019) introduced a process that integrates CDIO and rubrics in course design. She emphasized that this combination makes the outlines and assessment criteria more scientific and structured, enabling both lecturers and students to proactively engage in the teaching and learning process. This approach not only enhances training quality but also better meets stakeholder expectations (Le, 2019).

In summary, there have been numerous domestic and international research projects on training programs and CDIO-based training programs. These studies cover various aspects of the CDIO application, providing valuable insights for the thesis to incorporate and apply.

4. Research on Teacher Training Programs With the CDIO Approach 

Globally, the application of the CDIO approach in training programs primarily occurs in technical fields, making it challenging to find studies on CDIO-based teacher training programs. In recent years, several Vietnamese universities with pedagogical majors have begun to develop training programs that integrate the CDIO approach. Numerous articles in education journals discuss the development of teacher training programs that incorporate CDIO.

Nguyen (2012) asserts that a CDIO-based training program is an integrated program that significantly addresses the pedagogical domain, focusing on learning, experience, and the educational environment. The author emphasizes that the CDIO approach reflects an educational philosophy centered on learners, connecting education with real-life situations and having social significance. The process of developing a teacher training program using the CDIO approach generally involves several steps, each corresponding to different levels (university level, faculty/training sector level). According to Khoi, implementing CDIO in training programs helps orient students toward developing core competencies, preparing them to adapt proactively to educational innovation and the evolving role of teachers in modern society (e.g., as coaches, advisors, or managers of the learning process) (Nguyen, 2012).

Dinh et al. (2016) argue that the current teacher training programs are not sufficiently effective, necessitating new approaches. They propose that the CDIO approach is a modern and suitable method not only for technical fields but also for pedagogical fields. The essence of CDIO-based teacher training program development lies in restructuring the program through a defined process, using CDR (Conceive-Design-Realize) to select inputs and create a comprehensive and effective program framework. Based on CDIO principles, they proposed a 7-step process for building teacher training programs:

• One key aspect is Dinh et al. (2016).
• Another important component is argue that the current teacher training programs are not sufficiently effective, necessitating new approaches.
• They propose that the CDIO approach is a modern and suitable method not only for technical fields but also for pedagogical fields.
• The essence of CDIO-based teacher training program development lies in restructuring the program through a defined process, using CDR (Conceive-Design-Realize) to select inputs and create a comprehensive and effective program framework.
• Based on CDIO principles, they proposed a 7-step process for building teacher training programs.
• In addition, attention should be given to establish a committee to develop CDR levels 3 and 4.
• It is also necessary to address create an implementation plan.
• Finally, it is essential to consider draft the CDR and level 3 training program.
• Another point is conduct a survey to gather opinions from stakeholders.
• Another point is finalize the first version of the CDR.
• Another point is organize workshops to collect feedback from managers, educators, scientists, students, and alumni.
• Another point is finalize the training program and curriculum.

Based on the practical experience of developing teacher training programs at Vinh University, the authors highlight several key lessons: Raising awareness among staff and lecturers about the importance of CDIO-based program transformation; Building consensus within the university community to ensure smooth program transition; Engaging consultants and supervisors throughout the program development process; Selecting committed and enthusiastic core members to implement CDIO-based training across all pedagogical majors; Ensuring adequate human, material, and financial resources to facilitate the CDIO-based program development process (Dinh et al., 2016).

Le and Tran (2010) identified various approaches to developing teacher training programs in general and specifically for high school teachers. Among these approaches, the authors emphasized that the CDIO approach is an innovative and applicable method for teacher training program development. They also explored the relationship between the CDIO approach and teacher professional standards, as well as the essential requirements for developing high school teacher training programs using CDIO (Le & Tran, 2010).

Nguyen (2016) highlighted that the CDIO approach is suitable for developing teacher training programs at university-level institutions. She proposed a structured process for developing a Bachelor of Physics Education program using the CDIO approach, comprising the following steps:

• One key aspect is Nguyen.
• Another important component is highlighted that the CDIO approach is suitable for developing teacher training programs at university-level institutions.
• She proposed a structured process for developing a Bachelor of Physics Education program using the CDIO approach, comprising the following steps.
• In addition, attention should be given to survey and Evaluate: Analyze current and future social practices, strategic orientations for education, and general education programs.
• It is also necessary to address graduate Profile: Describe the competencies and qualities of students upon graduation.
• Finally, it is essential to consider determine Outcomes: Clearly define the expected outcomes of the training program.
• Another point is program Development: Review the existing teacher training program and update it according to new requirements.
• Another point is implementation: Apply the developed program in practice.
• Another point is evaluation: Assess the program's effectiveness and outcomes.

Nguyen Thi Nhi also emphasized the importance of maintaining flexibility in the training program. This flexibility allows program managers and lecturers to propose adjustments within a specific scope, ensuring the program remains adaptable to varying circumstances (Nguyen, 2016).

Although there are limited studies on CDIO-based teacher training programs, existing research highlights key aspects, including:

• The significance and benefits of applying the CDIO approach in developing teacher training programs.
• The requirements and processes for building teacher training programs tailored to pedagogical majors.
• Initial experiences in developing CDIO-based teacher training programs, providing practical insights for further application.

5. Research on CDIO-Approached Teacher Training Program Management 

Globally and in Vietnam, there are very few studies that specifically investigate CDIO-approached teacher training program management. Therefore, most insights into this topic are derived from studies on CDIO-approached teacher training programs in general.

Nguyen (2012) highlights that developing CDIO-approached training programs is both a new and challenging task for teacher training universities. At every stage of building and developing these programs, it is essential to have guidance and organization from management levels, including schools, faculties, and departments. Among the measures proposed for implementing CDIO-based teacher training programs, the author particularly stresses the importance of the university's scientific and training council. This council plays a crucial role in monitoring, evaluating, and approving the CDR (Conceive-Design-Realize), framework programs, and course outlines (Nguyen, 2012).

Dinh et al. (2016) attribute the initial successes at Vinh University in implementing CDIO-based teacher training programs to the following factors:

• Active leadership involvement from the university's management.
• Close coordination among pedagogical faculties.
• Consensus among the teaching staff, fostering a unified approach (Dinh et al., 2016).

Le and Tran (2010) emphasize that the role of managers is indispensable in developing CDIO-based teacher training programs. Effective development requires planning, organizing, directing, and evaluating each activity and stage within the training program development process. The authors highlight that a comprehensive management strategy is essential for achieving successful program implementation (Le & Tran, 2010).

Research on CDIO-approached teacher training program management remains limited and fragmented, with no comprehensive studies specifically addressing the management of primary school teacher training programs following the CDIO approach. Further research is needed to develop systematic management models and strategies tailored to primary education.

6. Primary Teacher Training Program Approaching CDIO 

Globally, recent studies consistently emphasize that teachers are the most crucial factor influencing the quality of education (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Snoek et al., 2011; Yates, 2007). The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) also recognizes teachers as the primary agents in ensuring educational quality and effectiveness (Yates, 2007). Empirical evidence shows that the quality of an education system fundamentally depends on the quality of teachers. Successful educational reforms rely significantly on teachers' willingness to embrace change. Renowned Indian educator Singh (1991) once stated, "No education system can reach higher than the teachers working for it". This statement highlights the pivotal role of teachers in educational development. Consequently, improving teacher training programs and ensuring the quality of teacher training institutions are essential for advancing the education system (Berry & Van Driel, 2012).

Teacher training involves equipping future educators with fundamental knowledge and essential skills while fostering a positive mindset, attitude, and professional beliefs. This process occurs within teacher training institutions through structured teacher training programs. The quality of teachers produced by any training institution is directly linked to the quality of the training program provided. According to Good (1973), teacher training encompasses both formal and informal activities designed to equip individuals to meet professional standards and fulfill educational responsibilities effectively.

Despite variations in teacher training models and programs across countries, most share three fundamental components:

• Subject Knowledge: Foundational knowledge relevant to the specific teaching discipline.
• Pedagogical Knowledge: Insights into educational psychology and methods for teaching specific subjects.
• Practical Educational Skills: Skills necessary for applying pedagogical theories and methods in real-world educational settings (Hu, 2014).

According to Dau (2020), the teacher training program is a comprehensive plan for organizing teacher training activities within pedagogical schools. It encompasses specific regulations regarding:

• Training Objectives: The goals and purposes of the program.
• Output Standards: The expected knowledge and skills graduates should possess. Training Content: The subjects and topics covered during the training.
• Training Methods and Processes: The pedagogical approaches and instructional techniques employed.
• Assessment of Training Results: Methods to evaluate the effectiveness of the training.

In other words, the teacher training program outlines the training level, target learners, admission criteria, graduation requirements, knowledge standards, skill standards, knowledge volume, training plan, training formats, assessment techniques, and the conditions necessary for program implementation (Dau, 2020).

Primary education is the initial level of general education, providing foundational knowledge essential for students to progress to higher grades. Consequently, primary teacher training is uniquely designed with specific pedagogical features to address the diverse cognitive abilities of primary school students. Students majoring in primary education are trained to acquire knowledge and skills necessary to teach multiple subjects within the primary education curriculum. This training must equip them to work with students who exhibit a wide range of cognitive capabilities.

Based on the above concepts, the primary teacher training program can be defined as a comprehensive, systematic plan covering all training activities. It includes:

• Objectives and Output Standards: Defining the professional competencies required.
• Training Content: Covering fundamental subjects and pedagogical strategies.
• Training Methods and Organization: Utilizing diverse teaching methods, resources, and tools.
• And Assessment Methods: Evaluating the effectiveness of training outcomes.

The primary teacher training program aims to develop professional expertise and capacity in primary school teachers, enabling them to meet professional standards. It also supports the personal and professional growth of each individual, starting from their preparation as future teachers and continuing throughout their career in education.

7. CDIO Approach to Primary Teacher Training Program Management 

The training program serves as the foundation of any educational institution, and the quality of its implementation reflects the training effectiveness of that institution. To ensure high-quality and effective training, it is crucial to organize and manage the training program systematically. Currently, the concept of training program management is interpreted in various ways, often overlapping with terms like "teaching and learning management", "training management", or "training program development management".

According to Ghufron et al. (2019), curriculum management is a set of strategic activities undertaken to ensure the success of curriculum development in a given educational institution. The authors emphasize that without effective curriculum management, it is challenging to optimize curriculum outcomes in schools (Ghufron et al., 2019). Wilkes et al. (2002) describe curriculum management as an automated system that supports the entire training process from planning to implementation to evaluation. Furthermore, curriculum management is considered a comprehensive, systematic process aimed at achieving educational outcomes. It encompasses planning, implementation, control, and evaluation to facilitate successful teaching and learning activities within educational institutions (Ilyasin, 2019).

Curriculum management is essential to maintaining the quality of higher education institutions. At the macro level, management methods and institutional frameworks guide the planning, organization, and implementation of training content. At the micro level, training activities aim to meet the national qualification standards (basic competencies) while also addressing societal needs. With the ongoing reforms and increased autonomy in higher education, training program management increasingly focuses on enhancing institutional autonomy and self-responsibility. This approach aligns with accountability, balancing the interests of schools, individuals, and society. At the micro level, training program management encompasses:

• One key aspect is curriculum management is essential to maintaining the quality of higher education institutions.
• At the macro level, management methods and institutional frameworks guide the planning, organization, and implementation of training content.
• At the micro level, training activities aim to meet the national qualification standards (basic competencies) while also addressing societal needs.
• With the ongoing reforms and increased autonomy in higher education, training program management increasingly focuses on enhancing institutional autonomy and self-responsibility.
• This approach aligns with accountability, balancing the interests of schools, individuals, and society.
• At the micro level, training program management encompasses.
• Another important component is setting objectives and program content.
• In addition, attention should be given to managing the training process.
• It is also necessary to address ensuring output results (in terms of both quantity and quality).
• Finally, it is essential to consider applying management methods and allocating resources efficiently.

Managing a primary school teacher training program following the CDIO approach is a structured and purposeful process. It involves the management subject (administrative levels from the board of directors, departments, faculties, to subject groups and individual lecturers) purposefully influencing the management objects (lecturers, students, subordinate managers, and training service conditions) through the use of management functions and means. The goal is to achieve training objectives and CDIO standards, as outlined in plans and subject programs.

Managing a primary teacher training program based on the CDIO approach involves several interconnected elements that influence each other. The key components include:

• One key aspect is managing a primary teacher training program based on the CDIO approach involves several interconnected elements that influence each other.
• The key components include.
• Another important component is managing Objectives and Output Standards: Establish clear, measurable goals and expected outcomes aligned with CDIO standards.
• In addition, attention should be given to managing the Structure and Content of the Training Program: Design a well-organized curriculum structure with relevant content that meets CDIO-based objectives.
• It is also necessary to address managing Program Implementation: Oversee teaching activities of lecturers; Monitor learning activities of students; and Evaluate student learning outcomes to ensure they meet the defined standards.
• Finally, it is essential to consider managing Conditions for Program Implementation: Secure the necessary resources, infrastructure, and support to facilitate effective teaching and learning.
• And. Another point is managing Program Evaluation and Improvement: Regularly assess the program's effectiveness and make necessary adjustments to improve quality.

 8. Limitations of the Research 

This study on the CDIO-based approach to primary teacher training program management has several limitations. First, the research predominantly relies on theoretical analysis and literature reviews rather than empirical data, which limits the validation of proposed models and frameworks. Additionally, the study lacks a comparative analysis with other training program management approaches, making it difficult to assess the relative efficacy of the CDIO model. The limited scope of primary teacher training contexts in Vietnam reduces the generalizability of the findings, as the study does not account for diverse educational settings or varying levels of institutional capacity.

9. Recommendations for Future Research 

To enhance the practical applicability of the CDIO approach in primary teacher training program management, future research should focus on empirical studies involving diverse educational settings in Vietnam. Longitudinal case studies and action research can provide valuable insights into the implementation process, addressing challenges and measuring outcomes over time. Comparative studies between CDIO-based and traditional training program management approaches would also be beneficial to evaluate the advantages and drawbacks systematically. Moreover, investigating the perspectives of key stakeholders, including educators, students, and administrators, can help identify contextual factors influencing the effectiveness of the CDIO approach. Future studies should also explore integrating CDIO with local educational policies and cultural practices to increase acceptance and relevance in the Vietnamese context.

10. Final Considerations 

This study highlights the potential of applying the CDIO approach to primary teacher training program management, emphasizing its structured and outcome-oriented nature. While the CDIO model has shown success in technical education, its adaptation to teacher training requires careful contextualization and empirical validation. Addressing the challenges of practical implementation, this study advocates for a holistic approach that integrates theoretical foundations with hands-on training practices. Future research should aim to bridge the gap between theory and practice through evidence-based models, fostering innovation and competency in primary teacher education. By advancing the CDIO framework in this context, educational institutions can better prepare teachers for the dynamic demands of modern classrooms.

Ethical Considerations 

Not applicable.

Conflict of Interest 

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Funding 

This research did not receive any financial support.

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